Computer,

Computers are tools used to process the information according to procedures that have been formulated. Word computer originally used to describe people who perkerjaannya perform arithmetic calculations, with or without a walker, but the meaning of this word is then transferred to the machine itself. Originally, the processing of information is almost exclusively related to arithmetical problems, but modern computers are used for many tasks unrelated to mathematics.
In such a definition there are tools such as slide rules, mechanical calculators types ranging from abacus and so on, until all the contemporary electronic computers. The term better suited for a broad sense such as "computer" is "that process information" or "information processing systems."

Definition

Nevertheless, the above definition includes many specialized tools that can only account for one or several functions. When considering modern computers, their most important properties that distinguish them from earlier computing devices is that, with proper programming, all computers can emulate the behavior of any kind (though perhaps limited by storage capacity and speed are different), and, indeed believed that the machine can now mimic the computing devices we invent the future (though undoubtedly more slowly). In a sense, these limits is a useful test for the computer to recognize "common purpose" of special-purpose devices early. The definition of "general intent" can be formulated into a requirement that a machine must be able to emulate a universal Turing machine. Machines that this definition is known as a Turing-complete, and that they first appeared in 1940 in the midst of developments around the world. See the history of computing article for more details of this period.
Embedded Computer
In about 20 years, many household tools, specifically including video game consoles, but also includes cell phones, video cassette recorders, PDAs and many in the household, industrial, automotive, and other electronic devices, all containing the electronic circuits such as computer Turing-complete qualified above (note that the programming of these devices is often directly into a ROM chip that will need to be replaced to change the programming of the machine). Other special purpose computers commonly known as the "microcontroller" or "computer unders" (embedded computer). Therefore, many of which restrict the definition of computers to devices whose primary purpose is processing information, rather than being part of larger systems such as telephones, microwave ovens, or plane, and can be modified for various purposes by the user without any physical modifications. Mainframe computers, minicomputers, and personal computers (PCs) are the main types of computers this definition.
Personal Computers
Finally, many people who are unfamiliar with forms of computers use this term exclusively to refer to a personal computer (PC).
How Computers Work
While the technologies used in digital computers have changed dramatically since the first computers in the 1940s (see History of the hardware count for more detail), most still use the von Neumann architecture proposed in the early 1940s by John von Neumann .
Von Neumann architecture describes a computer with four main sections: Arithmetic and Logic Unit (ALU), control unit, memory, and input and output devices (collectively termed I / O). This section is connected by a wire beam, "bus"
Memory

RAM memory modules
In this system, memory is a sequence of numbered (such as "cell" or "pigeon holes"), each containing a small piece of information. This information may be a command to tell the computer what to do. Cells may contain data that the computer needs to perform a command. Each slot may contain one, and what is now the data may then be a command.
A memory storing various forms of information as binary numbers. The information will not be resolved binary form (encoded) with a number of instructions that turns it into a sequence of numbers or figures. For example: The letter F is stored as a decimal number 70 (or 1,000,110 binary digits) using one method of solving. More complex instructions that can be used to store images, sounds, videos, and various kinds of information. The information can be stored in a single sell is called a byte.
In general, more memory can be rewritten millions of times - it is a scratchpad rather than a tablet of stone.
The size of each cell, and cell numbers, a great change from computer to computer, and the technology used to mebuat memory has changed violently - from electromechanical relays, to a tube filled with mercury (and later springs) in which the acoustic pulse is formed , until the matrix of permanent magnets, to individual transistors, to integrated circuits with millions of transistors on a single silicon chip.
Processing
Central-processing unit or CPU (central processing unit) to process the referral role, carry out and arrange laluan hypothetic menerusi information computer system. Processing unit or device will also communicate with the device input, output and storan to carry out related directives.
File: CPU with pins.jpg
Example of a CPU in packs Ball Grid Array (BGA) is displayed upside down by showing her legs
In the original von Neumann architecture, he explains an Arithmetic and Logic Unit, and a Control Unit. In modern computers, the second unit is located in a single integrated circuit (IC - Integrated Circuit), which is usually called a CPU (Central Processing Unit).
Arithmetic and Logic Unit, or Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU), is a device that performs basic implementation such as the implementation of arithmetic (addition, subtraction, and the like), the implementation of the logical (AND, OR, NOT), and the implementation of the comparison (for example, compare the contents of two slots for equality). This unit is made "real work".
The control unit stores the current instruction is done by computer, instruct the ALU to perform and retrieving the information (from memory) required to perform it, and move back the results to the appropriate memory location. Once that happens, the control unit goes to the next (usually placed in the next slot, unless the instruction is a jump instruction that tells the computer that the next instruction is placed in another location).
Input and Results
I / O allows the computer to get information from the outside world, and put his work there, can the physical form (hardcopy) or non-physical (softcopy). There is a wide range of I / O, from the familiar keyboards, monitors and disk drives, to the more unusual such as a webcam (web camera, printers, scanners, and so on.
Owned by all the usual input devices is that they encode (convert) information from a variety into the data that can be further processed by a digital computer system. Instrument output, decode the data into information that can be understood by computer users. In this sense, the digital computer system is an example of a data processing system.
Instruction
The commands discussed above are not rich command language is human. The computer has only a limited number of simple commands that well-defined. Common commands that are understood most computers are "copy the contents of cell 123, and place in a cell clone 456", "add the contents of cell 666 to cell 042, and the result in cell 013", and "if the contents of cell 999 are 0, the next command you in cell 345 '.
Instructions are represented within the computer as numbers - code for "copying" may be 001, for example. The particular instruction set that is supported by a particular computer is known as machine language. In practice, people usually do not write instructions for computers directly in machine language but rather use a programming language "high level" which is then translated into machine language automatically by special computer programs (interpreters and compilers). Some programming languages ​​closely related to machine language, such as assembler (low level languages); on the other hand, languages ​​such as Prolog based on abstract principles that are far from actual implementation details of the engine (high-level language)

Architecture
Contemporary computers put the ALU and control unit into a single integrated circuit known as the Central Processing Unit or CPU. Typically, computer memory is placed on top of some small integrated circuits near the CPU. The overwhelming majority of the computer mass is either ancillary systems (eg, to provide electrical power) or I / O.
Some larger computers differ from the above model in one major respect - they have multiple CPUs and control units working simultaneously. Moreover, several computers, used mostly for research purposes and scientific computing, have differed significantly from the above model, but they have found little commercial use.
The function of the computer is actually quite simple in principle. The computer fetches instructions and data from its memory. The instructions are executed, the results are stored, and the next instruction is achieved. Repeat this procedure until the computer is turned off.
Program
The computer program is a huge list of commands for the computer, perhaps with data in the table. Many computer programs contain millions of orders, and many of the commands are executed repeatedly. A [[Personal Computer [PC]] modern public (in 2003) can execute around 2-3 billion instructions per second. Computers do not gain their extraordinary capabilities through the ability to perform complex commands. However, they do millions of simple instructions arranged by clever people, "programmer." "Good programmers develop sets of commands to perform common tasks (for example, draw a dot on the screen) and then make those sets of instructions available to other programmers." Today, most computers seem to do several programs at once. This is usually referred to as multitasking. In fact, the CPU executes instructions from one program, then after a while, the CPU is switched to the second program and do some commands. Small interval of time is often referred to as time slices (time-slice). This raises an imaginary double folding programs are performed simultaneously by giving the CPU time in between courses. This is similar to how the film is a series of lightning just still frame. The operating system is a program that normally controls this time sharing
Operating System
The operating system is a sort of useful pieces of code. As a kind of computer code can be used together by a wide-range of computer programs, after many years, programmers finally menmindahkannya into the operating system.
Operating system, determine which program is run, when, and where the tools (such as memory or I / O) that they use. The operating system also provides services to other programs, such as code (driver) that allows programmers to write programs for a machine without needing to know the details of all electronic devices are connected.
Use of Computers
The first digital computer, the size and cost of large, mostly working on scientific calculations. ENIAC, the U.S. early computer was originally designed to calculate ballistics tables for weapons (artillery), calculate the density of the neutron cross-section to see if the hydrogen bomb would work properly (this calculation, conducted in December 1945 to January 1946 and involves dala in more than one million punch cards, and then show the form under consideration would fail). CSIR Mk I, Australia's first computer, evaluated rainfall patterns for the catchment of the Snowy Mountains, a major hydroelectric generation project. The others are also used in cryptanalysis, for example, the first digital electronic computer, Colossus, built during World War II. However, early visionaries also think that it will allow programming to play chess, moving images and other uses.
The people in government and large corporations also use computers for data collection and automate many tasks previously done by humans - for example, maintain and update accounts and inventory. In the field of education, scientists in various fields began to use computers for their own analysis. Decline in computer prices to make them can be used by smaller organizations. Businesses, organizations, and governments often use very many small computers to accomplish tasks that formerly performed by main frame computers are expensive and bulky. A collection of smaller computers at one site were referred to as a server farm.
With the invention of the microprocessor in the 1970s, became probably produce a very low-cost computers. PCs are becoming popular for many tasks, including keeping books, write and print documents. The calculation of forecasts and other repetitive math with spreadsheets, dealing with e-mail and, the Internet. However, the wide availability of computers and easy customization has seen them used for many other purposes.
Simultaneously, a small computer, usually with programming, began to find their way into other devices such as home appliances, automobiles, airplanes, and industrial equipment. Embedded processors which are controlled behavior of such devices easier, allowing more complex control behavior (for instances, the development of anti-lock brakes in cars). When the twenty-first century begins, most electrical devices, most forms of powered transport, and most factory production lines are controlled by computers. Most engineers predicted that this trend will continue.
The word "Computer"
Over the years there have been several slightly different meanings to the word 'computer', and several different words for things we now usually called a computer.
Eg "computer" once commonly used to mean hiring someone to perform arithmetic calculations, with or without engine assist. According to the Barnhart Concise Dictionary of Etymology, the word is used in English in 1646 as the word for "people who count" and then before 1897 are also to "mechanical calculators". During World War II, the word refers to the U.S. and British women workers whose jobs account for a large war artillery road with such machines.
Charles Babbage designed one of the first calculating machine called the Analytical Engine, but due to technological problems are not built in his lifetime. A variety of simple mechanical devices such as a slide rule kind have also been called a computer. In some cases they were referred to as "analog computer", as they represent numbers by continuous physical quantities rather than in addition to the binary digits are different. What are now called "computers" were once commonly called "digital computers" to distinguish them from these other devices (which are still used in the field of analog signal processing, for example).
In the thinking of another word for computer, it is observed that prices in other languages ​​chosen words do not always have the same literal meaning as the English word. In French for example, the word is "ordinateur", which means roughly "organizer", or "sorting machine". In the Spanish used the word "ordenador", with the same meaning, although in some countries they use anglicism computadora. In Italian, the computer is "calcolatore", a calculator, to emphasize that computational logic behind using such sorting. In Swedish, a computer is called "dator" from "data". Or at least the 1950's, they are called "matematikmaskin" (math engines). In Chinese, a computer is called "lake tien" or an "electric brain". In English, in other words and phrases have been used, such as "data processing machines".
The computer is any equipment / machinery / equipment used to process the intimation / information berpandukan to procedures / directives established.
Preamble
Someone cloning of computer owners need to recognize the computer components are different. Knowledge about the name, form and function fizik computer components cloning will help someone if he's dealing with a problem or when using another computer cloning. This knowledge will also make a person more confident that when using a multimedia computer apatah another computer if it is not often used by him before this. More typical for teachers more for teaching and learning. With that let's dive into the knowledge of the principle components contained in something computer cloning.
Basically, the words mean computer experts think (compute). Experts think the duty to perform mathematical calculation samada with the help of mechanical devices or not. So the estimates converted into a machine. At home, the task of "computer" is just special to the completion of mathematics, but Modern computers are used for various other tasks unrelated to mathematics.
Definition
Computer Takrifan origin, such as those mentioned above, only merangkumi special equipment that may think (compute) a function (single-tasking) or berbilang functions (multi-tasking) that terhad. Had to take some Computer Modern, one of the traits that membezakannya with initial computer is this: if inserted with perisian-perisian (software) appropriate, Modern computers capable to imitate (emulate) any hypothetic. However, this ability is limited by the charge kapasiti storan (hard disk), memory (RAM) and speed of processing (processor). Erti In other words, this capability may be used as a test for computer membezakan "versatile" with the early computer that specialized only for certain work. Computers can also be defined as a system that controls the electronic symbols quickly and precisely and cooked typical to receive, process, store and retrieve the results (output)
See the history of computer development.
Use of Computers
At first, computer electronic digits, with Saiz and his boarding is great, only used for scientific calculation, for the purpose ketenteraan selalunya, for example, ENIAC.
Embedded Computer
In this 20-year period, most home appliances, such as Toys Video Console, so the phone easier than, perakam video tapes, PDAs, and more; wheels of industry, vehicles, and other electronic devices; all of which contain adequate litar a Turing-complete computer. Computers are used in the equipment for a particular function, identified as a "microcontroller" or "Computer unders" (embedded computer). This kind of computer system only serves to process a particular edict our other features.
Computers cloning
Most people recognize the computer as a more general approach for cloning computer.
How Computers work
In digital computer technology has gone through major changes since the first computer in 1940. But most of them still use senibina (architecture) von Neumann, which is reserved by John von Neumann in the early 1940s.
Senibina von Neumann computer stating dibahagi to four main portion: an arithmetic and logic unit (Arithmetic and Logic Unit - ALU), litar guard (control circuitry), memory (memory), and input and output (I / O). All of this portion are connected together by wiring-wiring, which is identified as a "bass".
Memory
In the computer system, memory (memory) is jujukan stanza (numbered byte sequence) (as cells), in which each of them contain adequate grain edict. Notices may be the direction (instruction) to the computer, and each cell stores the data bits that the computer needs to run the landing.
In amnya, memory may be used initially over a million times. He is more of lakaran pad, rather than the stone tablet which should only be written once.
Size of each cell, and bilangannya, differed between one computer to another computer. So also with the memory technology, rather than electromechanical pulsations, so tiub mercury, so the arrangement of the magnetic matrix eternal, so the transistor, and so on litar bersepadu (integrated circuit) which contain adequate millions chip capacitor in the grain (chips).
Processing
Arithmetic and logic unit (ALU), is a tool that implements the principle of operation, such as arithmetic operations (add, reject, multiplication, etc.), logical operations (AND, OR, NOT) and compare operations. This unit actually perform the task in the computer.
Bodyguard unit (Control Unit), supervising slots that hold the direction (instruction) current, so tell the ALU of the operation that needs to be done and to receive notices that need (rather than memory) to carry out such operations. Later he was catapulted back into the position of the operating results of the appropriate memory. After that, the Guard unit will switch to an onward referral.
Input-Output
Input-output unit received notice confirming the computer rather than the outside world, and deliver a decision notice back to the outside world. There are various forms of I / O, rather than the Board kekunci, skrin, Cakera leathery, to an incredible tool, such as webcams.
All equipment (devices) input mengkod (encode) the data so that intimation to be processed by a digital computer system. Instrument (device) output is also menyahkod (decode) to the edicts of computer data that can be understood by computer users.
Referral (Instruction)
Computer is not a referral Referral flower like human language. The computer has only a simple directives that terhad. Referrals usually supported by most computers are like: Copy content of cell 123, and location of copies into 456 cells; add the content of the cell 666 to cell 042, and the location of additional results to 013 cells; if cell 999 are 0, so the direction is in cell 345 .
Directions are represented as numbers (numbers). For example, Kod to "Copy" is probably the 001. Directives set backed by a computer is called Machine Language. In practice, referrals to a computer is usually not written in the form of machine language, but in the form of language Pengaturcaraan Stage High (High Level Programming Language). Language pengaturcaraan kemudiaanya dialihbahasa to Machine Language by using a typical computer program (such as Pengkompil - compiler, or interpreter).
Sesetengah pengaturcaraan language is in a form that is almost a language machine, for example Language Grouper (assembler) - (also known as the Language Stage Low - Low-level language); When sesetengah language using the principle of a far differing with machine operation, eg Prolog.
Senibina (Architecture)
Modern computers put the ALU (arithmetic and logic unit) and the Guard Unit in one litar bersepadu that are recognized as a processing unit Central (Central Processing Unit - CPU). Kebiasaanya, computer memory will litar bersepadu diletak on some small border with the CPU. Other tools in the computer is bekalan power and input-output devices.
Principle functions of a computer is somewhat unclear. Computers welcomes referrals and data rather than memory. Referral later executed, the result is stored, and so the next one also welcome referrals. This procedure is repeated so that the computer was shut down.
Program
The computer program listing is a great landing to be realized by a computer. Most computer programs have millions of referrals, and most instead of directives are carried out repeatedly. An approach for cloning the Modern Computer seeks to carry out more about 2-3 Billion per current directives.
At the present time, most computers attempt to implement more than one program at a time. Keupayaan is called multitasking (multitasking). Although it is rough, as if the computer do the two work well, the CPU actually implement advance directives than one program, then switch to another program at run time for a moment. Term future of this moment is called Hirisan Period (Time Slice). Operating systems are programs that guard the partnership during this period.
Examples of multitasking operating system that justifies is Windows and Unix.
Control system
The main plan: System control
Control system is a system that determines what programs need to be implemented, and what resources (memory or I / O) to be used. Perkhidmatan membekalkan control system (service) to another program, such as cod (driver) that allows pengaturcara write programs for the machine without needing to know more details about the electronic device on a computer system.

Privacy & Trust in the Internet World:
Review Impact of Computers on Society
By: Rev. Adi Setyanto
Abstract
The development of computers connected to the Internet so fast. Almost no side of human life untouched by this Information Highway. Conditions which make us forget the two principal issues that are closely linked and require immediate solutions: protection of privacy and building trust between individuals with computers, people with computers, as well as fellow members of society mediated by the computer. This paper describes relations between the two issues are, and what solutions we might employ to overcome them.
Preliminary
I can still see in our minds, how our society conditions when the Internet has not been so developed. Computer automation of media is just a routine administrative work, a little (or a lot ...?) as entertainment media, data storage, or completing a special kind of design activity. Computer network limited to any office environment only. At that time, we already feel the real benefits of the computer, and may be able to proudly say "my computer is a personal assistant".
At present, in which the demands of society has thus evolved, bringing trends of development of computer networks have a much larger scale than we can imagine ten or fifteen years ago. The number of computers connected to the Internet is becoming so very much. People are starting to form their own community in cyberspace, parallel with their daily lives. Recent developments world of computers and the Internet whenever they are looking to exploit its benefits. In short, the affairs of this one is so important to do, a kind of necessity a day - the day for them.
Aspects of the technology becomes a major consideration so that the social aspects of computing and surfing tend tesisihkan. That is, our society does not have a cultural readiness to face the invasion of value - new value that was not too worried. The lack of anticipation of this gives us two fundamental issues that must be addressed immediately. The problem that the authors believe to have correlation with each other.
First, the issue of privacy becomes increasingly important and in need of protection are proportional. The crucial problem raised is the extent to which the boundaries of individual privacy in the context of space and time and social values ​​which are believed to society, who is entitled to enforce its rules, constraints on protection of privacy in the technological perspective, what condition that renders the privacy of a person / group.
Second, build the 'triangle of trust "between individuals with computers, computers with communities and individuals with society through computer mediation. Despite the constraints of space and time have been resolved by the network claimed the Internet, but in social interaction still needs psychological aspects of each offender, the context of space and time - each, historical aspects and the need for computer and Internet media trustworthiness.
Privacy issues and their Conservation
According to the Standing Committee on Human Rights and the Status of Persons with Dissabilities, privacy is "the core of human values ​​that animate the protection of human dignity and autonomy". Meanwhile, Professor Alan Westin, legal experts and government from the University of Columbia defines privacy as "the right of individuals to determine the personal information that may or may not be known to the public". In historical perspective, the formulation of this limitation still leaves a pretty warm debate. Government as the party put forward a counter reasons - reasons of national security as a justification for the surveillance activities of the dynamics of society and its attribute information attached to it. In line with the government, among the flying businesses also want to benefit as much as possible over information about its customers in return for the services they offer.
Represented by the pro lawyers and people who care about the rights - their rights, taking the point of view of privacy as an intellectual property or private property. This right is equivalent to the rights - the rights of other individuals in the context of democratic countries, such as the right of expression, the right to enjoy a decent life, which in this case can be perceived as well as the right to be alone (the right to be left alone) and to protect the personal interests of the disturbance external, within certain limits. Limits - limits that faint in the arguments both sides bring to the debate on a resolution that is more moderate: the balance between the rights to the circulation of information freely.
Concrete manifestation is the adoption of regulations that protect the privacy rights of individuals. For example, the United States has, among others, the Privacy Act (1974), the Electronic Communications Privacy Act (1986), and the Children's Online Privacy Protection (1994), while the EU has the European Privacy Directive 8 (1998). Significant impact on new privacy protections will be felt when the law became the main reference in the handling of social problems. Consistent law enforcement is meant to bridge the asymmetry of social transactions between (group) of individuals on one side by side - the users of public information on the other side. Their bargaining position will be slightly increased. However, law enforcement alone is not sufficient for business people are still willing to exploit the rights - the rights of individuals who have been protected with individual motives - each. In an actor's perspective, it takes a good intention for it. In terms of society, necessary control mechanisms. Another reason is that the formal law enforcement model is seen as too rigid and long process compared to the movement of such a rapid flow of information. Above constraints - these constraints, present the next strategy: self-regulation.
Self-regulation (self-regulation) is a mechanism handed enforcement of the rules of privacy protection to those who are actually likely to breach the privacy of individuals. The expected effects of its application is rapid response to cases which lead to privacy invasion. In the abstract, this is manifested in the excavation of the code of ethics in business, which reflects how they achieve the defined business objectives. How did they dig up the value - the value of a company that believed and put it into the corporate culture. Concretely, the code of ethics is to be implemented integrally into policy strategic, tactical and operational companies about how they manage information on the society legally and ethically. With the transparency that has characterized the era of information, communities themselves who will oversee the extent to which consistency in implementing the company's code of ethics. Very likely to occur, a company that proved to not be trusted to manage the attribute information held by the public will lose confidence and lead to loss of income.
Almost similar to the legislation, the concept of self-regulation also requires three essential elements: a set of privacy rules derived from practice - fair information management practices, methods of enforcement, as well as independent mechanisms of conflict mediation. In order for the application takes place smoothly, take a few requirements. First, it takes the application of the code of ethics privacy protection together in a business sector, so there is no inequality between firms that can trigger unhealthy competition. Second, the enforcement of privacy standards should be conducted by an independent agency outside the business sector. Finally, disclosure rules and the implementation of the first and second terms for the community.
In general, the code of ethics that can be used to maintain the consistency of the company / organization in protecting their privacy is Praise be to Allaah must:
1. responsible for all personal information they have.
2. know the purpose of collecting and processing information.
3. collect information with the knowledge and permission of the owner (except in certain conditions agreed upon).
4. limit the quantity of information required in executing a number of the above purposes.
5. avoid the use of distorted information with the original intention.
6. store information in the specified time period based on the need to achieve goals.
7. ensure the information is accurate, complete and current.
8. maintain / protect that information with the best - good.
9. is open in the policy and practice.
10. allow the data subject to access his data and convert it when needed.